Journal of Economic Literature
ISSN 0022-0515 (Print) | ISSN 2328-8175 (Online)
Difference-in-Differences Designs: A Practitioner's Guide
Journal of Economic Literature
(pp. 498–557)
Abstract
Difference-in-differences (DiD) is arguably the most popular quasi-experimental research design. Its canonical form, with two groups and two periods, is well understood. However, empirical practices can be ad hoc when researchers go beyond that simple case. This article provides an organizing framework for discussing different types of DiD designs and their associated DiD estimators. It discusses covariates, weights, handling multiple periods, and staggered treatments. The organizational framework, however, applies to other extensions of DiD methods as well.Citation
Baker, Andrew, Brantly Callaway, Scott Cunningham, Andrew Goodman-Bacon, and Pedro H. C. Sant'Anna. 2026. "Difference-in-Differences Designs: A Practitioner's Guide." Journal of Economic Literature 64 (2): 498–557. DOI: 10.1257/jel.20251650Additional Materials
JEL Classification
- C23 Single Equation Models; Single Variables: Panel Data Models; Spatio-temporal Models
- H75 State and Local Government: Health; Education; Welfare; Public Pensions
- I12 Health Behavior
- I38 Welfare, Well-Being, and Poverty: Government Programs; Provision and Effects of Welfare Programs